The Battle for the Destiny of Europe:

A Reconstruction

 

Early in the morning the Roman army assembles for the customary sacrificial ceremony, which Arminius also attends. They implore the blessings of the gods for their long march. As the Army breaks camp, the weather is quite cool, since it is around the beginning of October. Low- lying clouds cover the sky over the Weser valley. The mood of the troops is relaxed, since they are returning to their main garrisons along the Rhine in Ara, Cologne and Castra Vetera near Xanten. They will be able to spend the winter much more comfortably there than in the inhospitable land of the Cheruskans.

 

The columns of the three legions appear to be endless. They consist of the 17th Legion based in Köln as well as the 18th and 19th Legions based in Xanten, for a total of around 17,000 men. In addition there are three cavalry Alen with around 1,500 men; six auxiliary cohorts with around 3,300 men; around 360 reconnaissance troops and mounted couriers, and Varus’ elite bodyguard plus staff personnel and government officials.

 

Footnote: A legion consisted of around 6,000 combat troops and was divided into 10 cohorts of 600 men or 60 centuries of 100 men each. The centurions, commanders of a “century” or group of 100, were selected from the ranks. These long serving and battle tested field soldiers were the pillars of the Roman army. They were responsible for discipline and for conducting combat operations.

 

A long baggage train of around 1200 covered vehicles is marching between the individual units and at the end of the column. Many of the vehicles are overloaded. In addition to the above there are physicians, medics, construction technicians, iron workers, officers’ servants, transport workers and roustabouts. These are followed by wagons filled with food and supplies, construction utensils, catapults, etc. Then come commissary carts and wagons interspersed with herds of animals and pack mules loaded with the belongings of officers. Finally come the carts with slaves, whores and children.

 

Although the legions are marching four abreast, several hours pass before the last riders of the rear guard have passed the camp gate. Only a very small guard detail remains behind, under the command of a camp prefect.

 

Varus is pressed for time because of the advanced season. He is aware that once the march is underway, he will not be able to return to the summer camp.

 

The legionnaires are more heavily burdened than on a normal march. In addition to his armor, helmet, chain mail shirt, cloak, weapons, short sword, dagger and spears, each legionnaire has to carry the heavy four- cornered shield with leather covering. Cooking utensils, casserole and canteen hang from a forked stock carried on his shoulder. He carries his personal belongings in a leather bag and his marching rations for five days in a net and linen sack. These rations consist primarily of grain, beans, zwieback, garlic, bacon, smoked meat and hard cheese, food items that will not spoil quickly.

 

Altogether each cavalryman carried around 43 kilos.* The burden per individual was somewhat heavier than usual in order to lessen the load of the baggage train as much as possible.**

 

Footnote: *By comparison, the field pack and weapons of a modern armored infantryman in the Bundeswehr weighs 40 kilograms.

 

Footnote: **Chain mail shirts alone, which in Augustus’ time were still customary in the army (made from 20,000 to 30,000 small iron rings), weighed 8 to 10 kilos! The new armor type of movable iron plates was not introduced until the later part of Tiberius’ rule, around the year 30. A metal shoulder piece with buckle was found at Kalkriese -- was this new type of armor already in use at the time of the Varus battle, or was it being tested?

 

For each 8 soldiers there is a mule and sometimes a cart as well, for heavy equipment and luggage. The load consisted of around 16 trench stakes for daily camp construction, one leather tent, one hand-mill, one olive oil amphora, and a small barrel of Poska,*** as well as digging and cutting implements.

 

Footnote: *** The standard drink of the Roman army consisted of water mixed with wine vinegar. It gave good protection against dysentery and scurvy. This is the same draught that a sympathetic legionnaire is said to have given the dying Jesus on the Cross.

 

The horsemen have an easier time of it. Most of them are equipped only with a long sword, oval shield and several javelins, while others have a bow with quivers of arrows. Their personal belongings were carried in bags on their horses. In addition, mounted troops are also carrying various items that they have accumulated while in camp and do not want to discard.

 

The march from the Weser to the Rhine, about 200 kilometers as the crow flies, was about ten days’ march distant.

 

Even on the first day they have to halt frequently, as their slow moving baggage train delays them greatly. The column is already 20 kilometers long.***

 

Footnote: *** The normal column length of a marching legion was 4 to 5 kilometers. If the legions were marching in the usual AGMEN QUADRATUM formation, which was very difficult to attack, it was a very loose, not warlike formation. The troops were not marching in normal formation. They were ignoring normal military rules and precautions and they were not guarding their flanks on both sides of the march route. Such lack of precaution can be explained only by the fact that Varus and his staff felt completely secure in Cheruskan territory, where there had been 12 years of peace, since the time of Drusus. Thus Varus’ dispensing with precautions is not necessarily attributable to “lassitude.” At first he presumably marched along the secure and established east-west road used to transport supplies from the Rhine, which was provided with food depots, mail posts and police stations. In order to provide a large legion camp with its daily requirements of food and fodder, up to 1,000 vehicles would be underway in both directions. The protection of roads, bridges and fords was a task of the indigenous auxiliaries.

 

Arminius and his retinue and couriers are riding in the staff of the field marshal, whom they accompany for another half day. This disperses any lingering suspicions that Varus might have. It is important that Arminius do this. On the first day, Varus must have absolutely no cause for suspicion until the rear guard is so far distant from camp that return is no longer possible. Even under favorable circumstances, a return would have been very difficult, since such a long worm of an army cannot simply reverse direction. Nevertheless, a portion of the soldiers could still have returned to camp, although it would have lost much of the baggage train. Arminius must avoid this at all costs: The legions must be completely annihilated if liberation is not to be imperiled. Meanwhile the Germanic troops have already collected in their standby areas. Arminius now needs only to give the agreed signal for attack.

 

Even the secret grouping and coordination of three or four tribes in the attack is a masterpiece of organization and tactics. Except for a very few leaders of small units, the warriors who will take part in the attack do not yet know what lies ahead. The risk of informing them would be too great.

 

During a long interruption, Arminius departs under the pretext of leading his auxiliary corps to join the Roman army. What are the last words he exchanges with Varus before he takes his leave? What are his thoughts as he rides away? No doubt he feels that a great burden has been lifted from his spirit. The unbearable constant strain of deceit and deception is finally gone. From now on he can act openly! He has won the preliminary, now he must win the main battle. The latter should actually be easier than the former. The die has been cast!

 

When Arminius arrives at his headquarters, he immediately begins giving orders, blow by blow. Runners and mounted couriers leave, carrying the arrow symbol for battle to the warriors waiting in their attack positions. Each tribe has for some time been ready and waiting at its appointed battle position along the march route. The commanders now give orders to their fighting units. Arminius is everywhere at once, giving orders and instructions from atop his horse.

 

Perhaps he has previously assembled his key leaders in a nearby sacred grove and briefly discussed the coming action. Over and over again he impresses on them the vital importance of maintaining discipline and controlling their emotions. A premature assault by a hotheaded young warrior could spoil their greatest advantage, the element of surprise. He emphasizes the vitally important requirement that they all stick together and support one another to the death, which does not come easily for the individualistic Germanic warriors.

 

He tells the Germans that they must not allow a single Roman unit to go into battle formation. It is extremely difficult for an adversary to break through such a closed wall of shields, from which the gladius, the double- edged Roman short sword can cut down the inexperienced adversary with deadly accuracy. If the surprise attack fails, everyone, including all the families and the entire nation, faces torture, death, deportation, slavery, and the destruction of all their settlements and sacred sites.****

 

Footnote: **** Frederick the Great’s famous address to his officers before the battle of Leuthen in 1757 described a very similar situation: “I am forced to take this step or else all is irredeemably lost. We must crush the enemy quickly or else we will all be annihilated by his artillery.”

 

Arminius inspires his followers by reminding them that the Roman mercenaries are fighting far away from their homelands and their families, fighting under the clubs and whips of the centurions – fighting for money. He tells them that the Germans by contrast are fighting in their own mountains and forests under the eyes of their own gods. “We are fighting for our wives and children and for the greatest treasure of all, our freedom... never forget that our greatest strength lies in unity!”

 

He does not need to inspire the tribesmen where courage and bravery are concerned: especially those who have personal scores to settle with the Romans. They all know what is at stake and what they must do to prevail. Within the framework of their strategic goals, each individual and each group will act independently.*****

 

Footnote: ***** Did Arminius install Cheruskan officers among the united tribes? This is not likely. The allied tribesmen were probably led by their own nobility and Arminius probably supplied them with guides and couriers who were familiar with the region.

 

In addition to overseeing the main battle -- the attack on the legions -- Arminius has to isolate all the Roman contingents stationed in the outlying posts and watchtowers that the Romans had built along the supply routes between the major camps. All enemy attempts at help or warning have to be intercepted before they can arrive at the scene of battle.

It is also necessary to arrest the merchants and commissary agents, who often serve as spies and messengers. In addition, transports of food and supplies that are en route must also be intercepted.

 

The Roman army has now left the main road far behind. As soon as Arminius leaves, Cheruskan guides familiar with the paths direct the army along a road leading to the “region of insurrection,” through rugged heavily wooded hills.

 

The Romans still suspect nothing. No warnings have reached them, and the three legions unsuspectingly make camp on the evening of the first day’s march. Early the next day, while the giant worm of the army is struggling through a valley filled with deep gorges, the guides disappear. Then comes the catastrophic surprise:

 

The mounted advance party, making slow and irregular progress like the clumsy baggage train, is suddenly separated from the following units by a falling barrier made of trees. The entire column comes to a halt in a dark and narrow stretch of forest surrounded by a swampy area, hopelessly trapped. The vehicles of the baggage train become entangled in one another, jammed into the already disorganized marching formations of the military units, thereby blocking any military deployment. Bolting horses add to the confusion. The troops marching in the rear hear the commotion but have no idea of what is happening ahead of them.

 

Suddenly horn signals begin sounding from the heights, repeating like echoes. At this signal, all hell breaks loose! All along the march route, compact groups of ferocious warriors attack the Romans from both sides, screaming their blood curdling battle cries. From camouflaged elevated wood and earthen ambush, other fighters cover the astonished and heavily burdened legionnaires with salvos of javelins and stones, driving them into small and disorganized groups. Then more Germans break out of ambush, impaling the nearest Romans on their spears and attacking the others with clubs, axes, and swords. The attack comes so suddenly that many legionnaires are overpowered before they know what is happening. The Romans are even more distressed and amazed when they see themselves attacked by their trusted Germanic auxiliaries. Such a surprise always shakes the confidence and morale of a fighting force. There is no doubt that Arminius had planned this psychological effect as well. The attackers also assault the baggage train and panic its unarmed members, who make little or no attempt to defend themselves. They quickly remove the supplies, cut the harness of the draft horses and drive them away, creating even more confusion.

 

The first wave of attackers suddenly disappears into the forest, immediately followed by a fresh wave of tribesmen yelling the same terrifying war cries. These surround the disoriented groups of Romans and cut them down man to man. As if this were not a great enough calamity for the Romans, the weather suddenly changes and a ferocious rainstorm set in.

 

Now the gods are intervening as well – Donar is helping Arminius! With tremendous effort and brutality, the Roman officers finally succeed in imposing some kind of order. They are able to drive a few groups of able-bodied legionnaires into action. In the meantime, however, the ground has grown very soft. The thousands of hoofs, feet and wagon wheels have turned the narrow roadway into a river of mud, making all movement forward a torment. Many legionnaires have thrown away their heavy packs. The wounded, screaming and moaning, are left behind. Panic spreads. Here and there a sizeable group of determined and experienced legionnaires have banded together and succeeded in breaking out. The Germans have losses as well, of course.

 

The Romans who are still able to move -- horsemen, foot soldiers, wagoners, women and children – all rush forward, desperate to escape this valley of death. Nightfall comes quickly and the attacks subside. Both sides pause to catch their breath.

 

Finally, the nucleus of Varus’ remaining troops finds a somewhat open area. Varus orders that a camp be set up, insofar as that is possible. “Trenches!” “Bivouac!” This is a proper decision that could become dangerous for Arminius. Everyone who can still handle a spade or axe labors in the darkness. Walls and trenches finally ensue. The years of hard drill and discipline under the cursed slogan of Virtus – Opus – Arma ****** combined with the daily drudgery of legionnaire life finally prove their worth.

 

FOOTNOTE ***** Discipline – Trench work – Military service Part of the stern duty of the legionnaire was to build a marching camp with walls and trenches, even if for only one night. Under favorable ground conditions, four men could construct a portion of wall about 3.5 meters long in one hour. This was complete with posts and a trench in front that was 1.5 meters deep and 1.5 meters wide. In a combat situation, regulations prescribed that entrenchment work had to be carried out while wearing armor, a necessary measure that burdened the legionnaires additionally. Thus the Roman soldier had weapons at hand and was prepared for combat at all times.

 

Shouts, orders, curses and moans are coming from every direction. Only a few of the rain soaked tents can be set up, including that of the commandant. In the pouring rain, Varus holds a war council: “Eagles come to me!” By now he fully realizes the seriousness of his predicament. Arminius has succeeded in completely deceiving him, part of the legions and the baggage train has been lost, and the remainder is caught in a trap. What now? What is going through Varus’ mind? In this hour of truth, is he able to explain Arminius’ conduct to himself? Is he remembering Segestes’ warning?

 

Although many officers lose their nerves, Varus keeps his, as do the older experienced officers. He commands that the wagons be burned, along with all nonessential equipment and supplies. The tents, personal effects and reserve food are lost but this decision is necessary to improve the mobility of the troops.*******

 

Footnote: ******* Cassius Dio, CLV 56, 21.1

 

The centurions collect and reassign the surviving troops who have lost their units, trying to encourage them with: “We’ll get out of here! We’ll break through!” The survivors regain some hope. The last of the wine is given out. Many of the troops are wounded and despairing, however. Hungry and shivering with cold, they squat about the burning wagon beds wrapped in their cloaks. The younger legionnaires are the most anxious: What will the morning bring? Italy is incredibly far away!

 

The Romans marching through the forest in the rain. Arminius had persuaded Varus to leave the main route in the direction of the Rhine, onto well neigh impassable terrain. In addition to this came the heavy rainfall that was an added difficulty for the heavily burdened soldiers. In the heavily wooded area, the legions were unable to deploy. The Germans forced them to engage in individual combat, inflicting heavy losses.

 

Sleep is out of the question, since one alarm follows another. All around the Roman camp the watch fires of the Germans are burning; and the legionnaires can hear their wild songs of war and victory. Arminius knows that he does not have to attack the camp; it is enough if he just harasses the Romans with a few forces. The only thing he needs to do now is make sure that Varus is not able to concentrate all his able bodied units in order to break through the encirclement and reach open country. Apparently Varus has attempted to do this, although he does not get beyond the initial stages of such a breakthrough.

 

At daybreak of the third day Varus abandons the camp, since without adequate food his decimated troops cannot withstand a prolonged defense. Otherwise he would soon have had to capitulate without any great effort on the part of the enemy. Starving soldiers are too weak to be effective fighters. Armanius knows this too, of course. Now he is continually attacking the more mobile and better-organized Romans, using the same time-tested tactics of dividing, encircling and crushing the enemy.

 

By now the “battlefield” is 20 to 30 kilometers long, with considerable numbers of Romans still defending themselves. The commandant and most of the lower ranking officers are still alive.

 

They still have not given up hope of making contact with the nearest permanent camp. It could be that the “cowardly flight of the mounted troops,” which is later blamed on colonel of cavalry Vala Numonius -- which finishes off the morale of the foot soldiers -- is one last attempt at breaking the encirclement to get help. Or it could be that the mounted troops, in view of the chaotic situation and their restricted freedom to maneuver in a forest, are given the order to “save yourselves if you can” by a leader who wants to save as many of his still largely intact squadrons as possible so that they can fight another day. At any rate, this attempt at breakthrough does not succeed, and its 1200 horsemen are annihilated in another ambush. Suffering heavy casualties, the legionnaires again find themselves in a heavily wooded area.

 

The weather has grown even worse. A cold rain falls constantly on the stumbling cohorts along the slippery forest paths. A storm develops. Thick branches break off and fall on the marchers, further hemming them in. All the curses and inconveniences of this northern land are now conspiring against them. The large, leather-covered rectangular shields become soaked with water, so heavy that many of the troops throw them away and so are left defenseless. Their water-soaked bows also fail them. Nearly all their javelins have been used up or lost, and many soldiers have nothing left except short sword and dagger. They can no longer avoid dreaded man-to-man combat. They cannot take cover behind their shields in their usual closely massed ranks and “slaughter the enemy like animals.” In the attempt to support one another, foot soldiers and horsemen get in each other’s way in the cramped space, giving the attackers yet another advantage.

 

In the evening, the Romans again attempt to erect some kind of fortified camp. This is their only hope of surviving the night more or less intact. They succeed in erecting only a half finished portion of a stockade, however, since they are now lacking in strength, determination and implements. The night with all its terrors now falls on the remains of the three once proud legions.

 

The mood in the makeshift camp is even worse than in the preceding night. At roll call of the centurions, only a quarter of the original number is still present. They are now hungry and thirsty as well: they have eaten last of the emergency zwieback rations and drunk the last drop of posca. The scouts send to reconnoiter do not return. It is impossible to build fires and the wounded are moaning and shrieking.

 

The army is stranded with no hope of rescue.

 

While the number of Romans is decreasing, the number of Germans is increasing. Attackers continue to come from near and far. As news of the great battle spreads, more tribesmen flock to the site in order to participate in the battle and plunder. At the end it is nothing more than a great rabbit chase, as morale and fighting spirit of officer and soldier alike are completely broken. Cassius Dio writes: “Everyone was annihilated, man and horse” (56/22/2.)

 

We can assume that the auxiliary German contingents begin joining Arminius as soon as they realize that the choice is between crossing over or dying as heroes for distant Rome.

 

Now the last act of the drama begins. Here and there, small groups of experienced veterans are still fighting back to back. They continue to fight with the courage of despair and dedication to the code of the warrior. They will never surrender; they will fight to the bitter end and then die an honorable soldier’s death. The battle has turned into a slaughter. Now the last wagoners of the baggage train and the mule drivers are being cut down. Some of them cut the harness and attempt to flee on the draft horses, but they do not get far – they bog down in the swampy ground and are soon killed.

 

A wounded bearer of his legion’s golden eagle, sinking in quicksand, is defending this sacred symbol of Roman power and splendor with his last strength. The bodies of the honor guard are lying all about. When his arm is shattered by a blow from an axe, he clasps the eagle with his remaining arm and hurls himself into the water. Many hands then try to grab the drowning man’s trophy. A struggle ensues, since everyone wants to claim the capture of this greatly prized military emblem.

 

In the midst of his last loyal guards, Varus, who has been partially crippled by a wound, now receives news that all three eagles have been captured. He is overwhelmed with shame as he realizes that all three of his legions are doomed to total annihilation. The warnings of Segestes are looming vividly in his memory. Realizing that all is lost, he chooses to die by his own sword, in the tradition of Roman officers.

 

It is as though a curse had been placed on the name of Varus. His grandfather, Sextus Quinctilius, Propraetor in Spain, committed suicide for unknown reasons; and his father, the Quaestor Sextus Quinctilius Varus had himself killed by an emancipated slave after the lost battle of Philippi in 42 BC.

 

Most of his staff officers follow his example. They know very well what will be their fate if they are captured alive by those whom they have humbled and humiliated. Some kill each other simultaneously, while others order their servants to deliver the deathblow. Only 14 military tribunes, young administrative officers from rich patrician families who have served only a short time, surrender without a struggle. They can expect their families to ransom them for large amounts of money because they are very prominent prisoners.********

 

Footnote: ******** Apparently there were certain wealthy traders who served as brokers for prominent Roman families in the “ransom industry.” For a sizeable fee they would serve as intermediaries in the “course of commerce” up until the actual handover of prisoners. It would be interesting to know who profited from this: bilingual German or Roman traders? Did the ransom go to the tribe that delivered the prisoner? Was the ransom paid with money (which was not highly prized by the Germans) or with valuable commodities?

 

Most of the Roman officers have been killed by the time the death of the commandant becomes known. Now even the most valiant lose their last strength and will to resist. They simply drop their weapons and allow themselves to be killed or captured.

 

Thus ends the battle between Arminius and Varus in the Saltus Teutoburgiensis (Teutoburg Woodlands), a fearsome phrase that came to characterize the northern forests of Germania.

 

Did the Cheruskan leader meet his former commanding officer during the battle? Almost certainly not. Tacitus would surely have mentioned it if such an encounter had been reported.

 

Arminius does not see Varus again until he is taken to the spot where the Romans had attempted to burn and bury his body. What thoughts are going through his head as he gazes on the half burned body?

 

Is he profoundly aware of the significance of this moment?

 

We can be certain that he does not feel sympathy. It is much more likely that the demise of his powerful enemy evokes a defiant sense of satisfaction in the victor.

 

He orders that the head of the dead man be cut off and sent to Marbod, the king of the Markomanns. Nothing could be clearer than this proud and drastic gesture.

 

However, Marbod does not accept his suggestion to take action against the common enemy, either independently or in conjunction with other German tribes. He reacts with complete inactivity.

 

The simple Roman soldiers who fall into the hands of the Germans, most of whom are severely wounded, are either killed or housed and cared for in caves. Later they are distributed as living war booty among the individual tribes of the Germanic confederation.

 

Footnote - cont.d: These prisoners survived, but on orders of Augustus they were banned from returning to Italy. The emperor was afraid that the stories told by the survivors would spread panic through the population and engender defeatism in the army. Another reason for the ban might have been Rome’s concern that the well-treated survivors would present an entirely different picture of the Germans from what Rome wished to portray: They wanted to retain the hostile images of depraved Germanic barbarians. A similar situation arose in 1945 for the Soviet soldiers returning from Germany who were forbidden under threat of punishment to discuss their impressions of Germany.

 

It is well documented that the Germans treated their prisoners of war generously and many of them lived until they were old and grey as farm hands.

 

A few Romans managed to escape the massacre uninjured and succeeded in reaching the frontier along the Rhine. We know that six years later, when Germanicus visited the battleground, he had veterans in his company who had been eyewitnesses and who described the battle to him in detail. In all probability they were prisoners who had been ransomed.

 

According to official Roman accounts, the Germans tortured and mutilated surviving high- ranking staff officers and justice officials before sacrificing them to their gods, especially if they had been closely involved with enforcing Varus’ punitive measures. Then they nailed their heads to oak trees in the sacred groves.

 

We do not know how much of this is true. Actually the Germans at that time did not practice human sacrifice. However, we can be certain that they passed judgment on those Romans who were responsible for crimes such as murder, rape, torture, mutilation and death by flogging. Serious crimes were of course punishable with death.

 

It is also reported that there was a very young officer named Caldus Caelius among the prisoners, presumably a son or near relative of Marcus Caelius, Centurion of the 18th Legion, who is well known from the Xanten monument. The report states that in order to escape the shame of imprisonment, he beat his forehead with his chains until his brains protruded and he died.

 

We have no exact information concerning the casualties suffered by Varus’ army. We can, however, estimate them rather closely on the basis of the known strengths of legions in those days. A legion consisted of around 6,000 troops, including men and officers. This was just the number of combat troops, however. To the 6,000 fighters we have to add six contingents of auxiliaries, a cohort of praetorians, 300 horsemen, a large number of staff servants and a very long baggage train. All told, the three legions would have included around 31,000 persons.

Of this number, we can safely assume that at least 20,000 were killed, including those army units assigned to outlying posts, which were killed in the initial assault -- a shattering and incomprehensible loss for Rome!

 

The German losses of course cannot be determined, but they would have been a small percentage of Arminius’ forces. They would without doubt have removed their dead from battlefields, burned them, as was their custom, and interred them at a venerated site. And what became of the thousands of enemy corpses that so gruesomely lined Varus’ route? In accordance with the general custom of those days, they would have been stripped and plundered. Their naked bodies would have been left unburied to rot in swamp and woodland. Six years after the battle, Germanicus had their scattered bones collected and interred in a burial mound.

 

In summarizing the victory of Arminius, we can say that the main prerequisites for his success was a combative spirit on the part of the German tribes--appropriate to the Roman threat--accompanied by painstaking preparation and brilliant organization. Arminius would have failed if he had not planned this liberation struggle far in advance and chosen the right confidants and assistants. He had to risk battle at precisely the right moment, the right place and with the right strategy, thereby compelling his opponent to submit to the laws of initiative and passage of arms.

 

Was Arminius able to foresee the outcome in detail?

 

Of course not. Imponderables abound in war! But a liberation struggle such as Arminius was waging is comparable to a complex work of art. The desired effect and its prerequisites are clear, but realization requires great order and discipline. These in turn must be accompanied by fantasy and calm understanding as well as passionate emotion, courage, and instant decisiveness. To these qualities Arminius added enormous adaptability and persistence.

 

Of course Arminius could not have planned the rain, storm, and mud, which came as welcome and unexpected allies. The Romans complained constantly about the cold wet weather of northern Germany; and the pathless, well-nigh impassable terrain must have further depressed the mood of the southerners. Together the weather and terrain would have greatly weakened their fighting spirit. Ultimately, however, the fact remains: only the competent-know how to properly utilize good fortune.