Arminius’ Army

 

In Arminius’ day the Germanic tribes had no standing army, which gave the Romans a great advantage over them. Military service was the priviledge of free tribesmen rather than an obligatory burden. This Volksheer (peoples’ army) was in effect a militia that included every able-bodied male above the age of 12, including grey-bearded grandfathers. When in time of war it was called up, it elected its own leader from among its nobility. This leader, chosen on a basis of capabilities and trust, was called the Herzog (“people’s leader.”) As military leader, the Herzog was really nothing more than a Primus inter pares or “first among equals.”

 

The end of the war was also the end of the Herzog’s military commission. This termination of authority was insurance against the continuing exercise of power of any individual and his clan. King Marbod, who like Arminius had been raised in Rome, was the great exception to this Germanic practice.

 

We do not know whether Arminius ever attempted to establish a standing army, as did Marbod. A prerequisite for this would have entailed a central institution in which power could have been concentrated. Such a concentration was not desired and did not exist.

 

The infantry were of course the decisive branch of the army, while mounted troops in combination with foot soldiers often achieved the tactical results that were decisive for the battle. Training in large units, which was customary among the Romans, was not an option for Germanic warriors. Such exercises are possible only in standing armies. Because of the innate individualism of his countrymen, any attempts that Arminius might have made at large scale maneuvers would have come to naught. The first reports of anything resembling Roman style training exercises among the Germans come subsequent to the year 17.

 

The Germans’ battle tactics depended on the terrain. In mountainous or thickly wooded areas, ravines and narrow passes -- anywhere they could disrupt the enemy’s marching formation -- they always tried to force the enemy to fight on their terms. If they could break up the Romans’ marching formations and hinder them from deploying in battle formation, the Germans could engage them in individual combat.

 

In open terrain, the Germans depended entirely on offensive tactics. They staked everything on gaining victory in an initial furious charge by dense ranks of the wedge-shaped main body of warriors. For the Germans the outcome of battle was decided by the gods rather than by weaponry. The gods determined life and death, victory and defeat. Their decision had to be accepted unquestioningly. Warfare had a deeply religious character among the ancient Germans.

 

Like their tactics, their principl weapons (long and short swords, axes, spears, cudgels and slingshots) were designed for the offense. They used the bow primarily for defense and so subordinated it to othere weapons, although it played an important role in ambushes and guerilla tactics.

 

Only about a quarter of a Hundertschaft (group of one hundred) would be armed with swords; the masses were outfitted only with lances and shields. The spear with oak or ashen shaft was a weapon for thrusting and hurling as well as a staff or pole for vaulting over terrain obstacles.

 

The spearpoints were not always made of metal; often the point was formed simply by hardening the spear shaft in the fire. The wounds caused by such points were no less dangerous than bayonet wounds.

 

The Romans, who were small of stature, feared nothing worse than a surprise attack by a half naked horde of German warriors singing their Barritus behind raised shields. Their unnerving war song sounded all the louder during a wild charge.

 

The duke or Herzog led the charge and fought in the foremost ranks. Next to him were his Gefolgschaft or closest followers, chosen young men who were irrevocably sworn to fealty (the Germanic gods were unforgiving of warriors who broke their sacred oath.) In widening ranks behind the duke came members of his clan, who were closely allied through family ties. Every member of the clan was prepared to risk his life for other members. Their mutual oaths of fidelity bound the Gefolgschaft much more tightly together than would compulsory obedience or an abstract concept of duty.

 

If the political “chain pullers” of modern wars had to fight in the front ranks of such a “boar’s head” wedge today, our world would be a much more peaceful place!

Sketch with Caption:

 

The ancient Germans considered it cowardly to wear helmets or body armor. They had no specific “war industry”, although native smiths were highly skilled.

 

The lightweight German shields could not be compared to the heavy Roman shields that protected the entire body. There were round, oval and square shields. We do not know whether the shape of the shield was associated with membership in the bearer’s tribe or clan. The shields were constructed of thin wooden boards glued together with birch sap (the universal glue of antiquity) and decorated with bronze or iron borders. Some shields had leather or hide coverings, while others were reinforced with a decorative metal mountings. They came in a great variety of colors, shapes and sizes. Every shield had a round or pointed metal boss or hump to protect the bearer’s fist from swordstrokes. It also served as a weapon for striking and shoving.

 

The Germanic warrior painted his shield, one of his most highly prized possessions, with the colors of his clan or tribe. Favorite motifs were Heilszeichen (symbols of salvation or good luck) that protected and brought good fortune to the bearer. These included pictures of animals and gods such as the snake and wolf of Wodan, the bear and buck of Donar, the ram of Ziu and the swastika. The spear represented Wodan and the hammer Donar, while the sword represented Ziu. For coloring they used soot, animal blood, chalk, wood, iron oxide, and the plant roots that were used to dye textiles (the colors blue, red, lila, yellow, black and white.) It was considered a terrible disgrace to lose one’s shield – tantamount to losing one’s honor. Warriors who lost their shields were not allowed to attend religious festivities or participate in the tribal Thing (assembly.) In Part 6 of Germania, Tacitus writes that some warriors were so overcome with shame after losing their shield that they hanged themselves.

 

Most warriors gathered together only in emergencies and did not always need a shield. Shortly before battle they would make themselves shields of willow wicker, which provided minimal protection.

 

In the actual battle they would cast off clothing from their upper bodies -- cloaks and smocks – so as to be able to fight unhampered. For the Romans, who were armed and armored from head to foot, this created a shocking and frightening effect of wild masculine power.

 

Roman sculptors created artistic and remarkably objective pictures of battling Germanic warriors. They never failed to attribute dignity to their barbarian opponents. They depicted them as abject objects for derision, even when captured or defeated.

 

In contrast to our own age and culture, the Romans realized that they would diminish the glory and accomplishments of their soldiers if they diminished the dignity of a brave enemy.

 

The Germans had no experience in building or attacking Roman style fortresses, therefore they hardly ever attempted to assault an established camp that was fully manned and equipped. They had no knowledge of siege machines, tactics or heavy weapons. On the other hand, they were adept in setting up impressive fortified Rundanlagen (complexes in the round, with or without trenches) as well as Fluchtburgen (log and earth refuges).

 

This shows that they were capable of well-planned defensive efforts that involved large numbers of workers. Their rapidly constructed barricades and ambush positions, which they built in mountain, swamp and marshland passes, were of the same type construction as these Rundanlagen. The tribesmens’ light armament could be advantageous and even decisive in certain combat situations. In contrast to the heavily armed legionnaires with their great burdens, the Germanic warriors enjoyed great mobility and rapidity of motion. It is surprising how often Arminius was able to circumvent or defeat unexpected Roman actions through rapid reactions. Since a heavily armed Roman detachment could not form and deploy battle formations in difficult terrain, as they could in open fields, the Germans remained in constant motion. They could attack incessantly by withdrawing weary fighting detachments from the front and replacing them with fresh reserves while the enemy, with no respite, could be ground down and overrun.

 

Thus a simple people’s militia with good leadership could force their chosen tactics on well trained, professional legionnaires, which could be decisive. It is clear that we should consider other aspects of the struggle between Rome and Germania besides the military inferiority of the German tribesmen. Several positive circumstances came together to assure the Germans’ final success. First and foremost, the fighting morale of the Germanic warrior was entirely different from that of Roman mercenary. He was struggling to protect his turf and homeland, fighting before the eyes of his kith and kin. With firm faith in his gods and his divinely inspired leader, he unhesitatingly risked his life for the freedom and well being of family, clan and tribe.

 

The German warrior knew that defeat meant certain subjugation, slavery, deportation and annihilation for everyone, not just himself alone. It meant the violation of his sacrosanct relicts, or cultural annihilation. This knowledge motivated him to commit himself totally to the struggle. The Germanic warrior held nothing back. For the Germanic warrior, rich booty was a gift from the god of war. Women were responsible for feeding the warriors and caring for the wounded. Whenever possible the dead and seriously wounded were protected from the reach of the enemy. In times of severe distress, women took up weapons alongside the men. The souls of valiant warriors who were killed in battle could expect a place in Walhalla, the Germanic heaven, which they envisioned as a great banquet hall. Here, in the company of other warriors, the spirits of the fallen feasted and drank and engaged in delightful war games while lovingly tended by beautiful Valkyrie maidens.

 

The legionnaires by contrast were recruited from a multiplicity of different national groups and subjected to iron discipline under the rods of the centurions. Far from their homelands, in an inhospitable land covered with endless forests and marshes, marching and fighting under severe weather conditions, they had to defend their very hides from the wild and unpredictable inhabitants. If they were released to their homeland after 20 years of military service, crippled and riddled with disease, they were treated with disdain unless they returned with rich booty. Their morale was dependent on the power and glory of the Empire, and officers as well as men strove for money, slaves, distinctions, medals and advancement. The auxiliaries in particular were motivated by greed for booty.

 

Arminius and his fighters did not have the supply problems of the Romans, who had to be provisioned by huge baggage trains. Like soldiers always and everywhere, each Germanic warrior could live for several days from the food in his knapsack along with that of fallen soldiers. The herds of slaughter animals in the Romans’ supply columns were always the Germans’ favorite booty. If harvest had been completed they could depend on the support of the local population in case of emergency.